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Tumours are organ-like structures composed of different cell types whose interactions are required to promote their maintenance, growth and metastasis. Increasing evidence indicates that the tumour microenvironment (TME) can dictate aberrant cellular function and play a critical role in the subsequent development of more advanced and refractory malignancies. TME is constituted of cancer-associated fibroblast (CAFs), Read More

Tumours are organ-like structures composed of different cell types whose interactions are required to promote their maintenance, growth and metastasis. Increasing evidence indicates that the tumour microenvironment (TME) can dictate aberrant cellular function and play a critical role in the subsequent development of more advanced and refractory malignancies. TME is constituted of cancer-associated fibroblast (CAFs), Read More

Introduction The term ‘microbiota’ defines the community of symbiotic microbes including bacteria, archaea, viruses, fungi, and protozoa that have established their own niches within a host and provide supporting roles in host immunity and metabolism. Some commensals organisms are often referred to as “pathobionts” because they can cause disease under certain conditions. The intestinal tract Read More

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), classified as a retrovirus, belongs to the genus Lentivirus within the family of Retroviridae. It is the causative agent of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). It invades various immune cells such as the CD4+ T cells and monocytes. A decline in CD4+ T cell numbers below the critical level leads to loss of cell-mediated immunity. Consequently, the body Read More

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), classified as a retrovirus, belongs to the genus Lentivirus within the family of Retroviridae. It is the causative agent of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). It invades various immune cells such as the CD4+ T cells and monocytes. A decline in CD4+ T cell numbers below the critical level leads to loss of cell-mediated immunity. Consequently, the body Read More

Introduction to viral Infections Viruses are infectious agents that only replicate inside of living cells. The viral replication cycle follows a typical pattern: Attachment and entry: The virus attaches to the host cell membrane via specific receptors and enters the host cell, delivering its genetic material into the cell. Replication and Assembly: The virus uses the host Read More

General introduction on antigen recognition by γδ T cells Each γδT cell produces a unique ‘clonal’ γδTCR (via somatic recombination) that assembles with CD3 proteins on the cell surface of γδT cells to transduce activating signals into the cell. This process and the nature of the receptors resembles the formation and structure of the antibodies. Read More

What are MDSCs? Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are a group of myeloid cells with potent immunoregulatory activity. Two major MDSC subsets have been identified in humans: granulocytic or polymorphonuclear MDSCs (PMN-MDSCs) and monocytic MDSCs (M-MDSCs): PMN-MDSCs are phenotypically and morphologically similar to neutrophils. They are defined as CD11b+CD14–CD15+ (or CD66b+)CD33+. M-MDSCs are similar to monocytes. Read More

Activation of γδ T cells γδ T cells exhibit preferential pairing of variable region genes (Vγ and Vδ genes) in the TCR. For example, in the peripheral blood of adults, most γδ T cells usually express Vδ2 paired with Vγ9 [2]. γδ T cells expressing Vδ1, Vδ3, or Vδ5 together with one of the remaining Read More

Introduction Viruses are infectious agents, replicating inside of living cells. The viral replication cycle in an infected cell follows a typical routine: Attachment and entry: The virus attaches to the host cell membrane via specific receptors and enters the host cell, delivering its genetic material into the cell. Replication and Assembly: The virus takes over Read More